Janga Wolof

Determiners are words or grammatical elements that help specify which noun is being referred to, how definite or indefinite it is, how many there are, or where it is in relation to the speaker or listener.

English uses a relatively small set of determiners:

the, a/an, this, that, these, those, some, each, every, all, many, etc.

Wolof has a considerably more integrated system. Determiners interact closely with the noun-class and number systems, and many of them change form according to the noun they accompany.

This makes determiners an important part of learning Wolof nouns. A learner does not simply learn:

xale — child

but will encounter forms such as:

xale bi — the child
xale ba — that/the child over there
xale yi — the children
ab xale — a child
ay xale — some children

The determiner tells the listener considerably more about the noun than an English article necessarily does.

Determiners and noun classes

One of the most important features of Wolof determiners is their relationship with noun classes.

Wolof nouns belong to grammatical classes, and definite articles generally contain a consonant associated with the noun’s class.

For example:

xale bi — the child
góor gi — the man
jigéen ji — the woman
muus mi — the cat
suuf si — the earth
ween wi — the breast

The initial consonant of the article therefore changes:

b-
g-
j-
m-
s-
w-

and so forth.

This is one of the clearest ways that the noun-class system becomes visible in ordinary Wolof sentences. (⁠jangawolof.org)

A learner therefore cannot always memorize the English concept:

the = one Wolof word

Instead, the appropriate definite article depends partly on the noun.

The definite article

The Wolof definite article is roughly equivalent to English “the,” but it provides more information than the English article.

It normally follows the noun:

xale bi
the child

rather than preceding it as in English:

the child

This noun + article order is a fundamental feature of the Wolof noun phrase. (⁠jangawolof.org)

Compare:

kër gi
the house

xale bi
the child

ginaar gi
the chicken

The exact form of the article depends on the noun’s class.

The main definite-article forms

The singular definite articles include forms beginning with:

b-
g-
j-
k-
l-
m-
s-
w-

There are also plural forms, most commonly:

yi

with ñi occurring with the human/person class associated with ki.

Examples include:

xale yi
the children

nit ñi
the people

The particular class of a noun is therefore important when selecting a definite article. (⁠jangawolof.org)

The article does more than mark definiteness

The Wolof definite article also has a deictic function.

In other words, the form of the article can provide information about the noun’s relationship to the speaker, listener, or surrounding context.

Three broad forms are traditionally distinguished:

• -i — associated with something near the speaker
• -a — associated with something farther away
• -u — used in certain relative or modifying constructions

For example:

xale bi
the child / this child, depending on context

xale ba
the child over there / that child

xale bu…
the child who/that…

The distinction is more complicated than simply translating -i as “this” and -a as “that.” Context and the construction determine the most natural English interpretation. (⁠jangawolof.org)

This is an important difference between Wolof and English.

English normally separates the ideas:

the child
this child
that child

Wolof can encode some of these distinctions through different forms of the article itself.

-i, -a, and -u

The three forms are particularly useful to recognize:

-i

The -i form is associated with something near the speaker and is also commonly used as a general or default definite form.

For example:

xale bi
the child

When the exact deictic relationship is not important, this is often the form a learner will encounter.

-a

The -a form is associated with greater distance from the speaker.

For example:

xale ba
that child / the child over there

The distinction can be physical, but it can also be contextual or discourse-based.

-u

The -u form occurs in particular grammatical environments, especially with modifying or relative constructions.

For example:

xale bu bon
the bad child / the child who is bad

Here bu is not simply functioning as an ordinary equivalent of English the. It participates in the grammatical relationship between the noun and the following description.

This is why it is useful to think of these as different forms of the Wolof definite determiner system, rather than attempting to translate each one into a single English word.

The initial consonant and the noun class

There are two pieces of information to consider when using a Wolof definite article:

1. Which noun class does the noun belong to?
2. Which deictic form is appropriate?

For example, if a noun takes the b- class marker, the corresponding definite forms can be built around:

bi
ba
bu

A noun taking g- may similarly have:

gi
ga
gu

Likewise:

ji / ja / ju

mi / ma / mu

si / sa / su

wi / wa / wu

and so forth.

This gives the learner a useful pattern:

noun-class consonant + deictic/grammatical vowel

However, it is important not to assume that the correct class can always be predicted from the spelling of the noun. Noun classes are grammatical categories and should generally be learned as part of the vocabulary of the noun.

Noun class is not simply the first letter

A common temptation for learners is to assume:

noun begins with b → use bi

or:

noun begins with g → use gi

This sometimes works as a rough clue, but it is not a complete rule.

Wolof noun classes are grammatical, and the relationship between the noun’s initial sound and its article has developed through the history of the language.

Some classes have characteristic associations with particular types of nouns, while individual words can have to be learned separately.

There are also cases where the article provides information that cannot be predicted simply from the first letter of the noun. (⁠jangawolof.org)

For this reason, it is useful for learners to memorize nouns together with their class/article when possible:

xale — bi

rather than learning only:

xale — child

Indefinite articles

Wolof has several ways of expressing indefiniteness.

One of the most important is:

ab — a/an

For example:

ab xale
a child

ab kër
a house

Unlike the definite article, ab generally occurs before the noun.

This produces an important contrast:

ab xale
a child

but:

xale bi
the child

The position of the determiner therefore changes according to the type of determiner being used. (⁠jangawolof.org, ⁠universaldependencies.org)

benn — “one” / “a”

Another important form is:

benn

which literally relates to the number one but can also be used in an indefinite sense similar to:

a
one particular

For example:

benn xale
a child / one child

The distinction between ab and benn is partly one of emphasis and meaning.

Ab is a straightforward indefinite article:

ab xale
a child

Benn retains more of the meaning of:

one / a certain / a particular

Depending on context, it can therefore draw attention to the fact that there is one particular individual or item being referred to.

Plural indefiniteness

A particularly useful Wolof determiner is:

ay

which can express an indefinite plural such as:

some
certain
a number of

For example:

ay xale
some children

ay kër
some houses

This gives a useful basic contrast:

ab xale — a child
ay xale — some children
xale bi — the child
xale yi — the children

These four forms provide a good introduction to how Wolof expresses definiteness and number.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are closely related to determiners because they identify a noun by its relationship to the speaker, listener, or discourse.

English has:

this
that
these
those

Wolof uses forms such as:

bii — this
bee — that

with the initial consonant changing according to noun class.

For example:

xale bii
this child

xale bee
that child

The same principle can produce forms such as:

gii
jii
mii
sii
wii

and corresponding forms with -ee.

Demonstratives therefore interact directly with the noun-class system. (⁠jangawolof.org)

Demonstratives and the definite article

The distinction between a definite article and a demonstrative is useful.

Compare:

xale bi
the child

with:

xale bii
this child

The first identifies a particular child as definite.

The second additionally points the listener toward a particular child, either physically or contextually.

Similarly:

xale ba
the child over there / that child

can be contrasted with:

xale bee
that child

The precise distinction depends on the grammatical construction and context.

Demonstratives can refer to things in discourse

Physical distance is not the only consideration.

A Wolof demonstrative can also refer to something already being discussed or something understood from the conversational context.

Thus, “this” and “that” should not always be interpreted as literal measurements of physical distance.

A speaker might use a demonstrative to distinguish:

this particular idea

from:

that previously mentioned idea.

As in English, context is therefore important.

Other demonstrative forms

Wolof also has forms such as:

boobu

which can refer to something associated with or near the listener, or something already established in the discourse.

Demonstrative forms can therefore encode distinctions involving:

• proximity to the speaker
• proximity to the listener
• distance from both
• previously established reference
• discourse context

This is one of the areas where Wolof’s determiner system can express distinctions that English usually leaves to context. (⁠jangawolof.org)

Quantifiers

Determiners also include words that specify quantity or distribution.

Important examples include:

• bépp — each / every
• benn — one
• ay — some
• yépp — all
• lépp — everything/all, depending on construction
• dara — anything/nothing, depending on the negative construction

Some of these forms overlap with pronouns or other grammatical categories depending on how they are used.

For example:

bépp xale
every child / each child

A determiner therefore does not necessarily correspond neatly to a single English grammatical category.

bépp — “each” / “every”

Bépp is especially useful for expressing distributive meanings.

It can correspond to:

each
every

depending on context.

For example:

bépp xale
each child / every child

The distinction between each and every in English is often subtle as well, and Wolof does not necessarily reproduce exactly the same distinction.

The important point is that bépp treats the noun as a member of a set while distributing the statement across its members.

all and totality

Wolof can also express totality using forms such as:

yépp

and related constructions.

For example:

xale yi yépp
all the children

The placement is significant. A totality expression may occur after the noun phrase rather than in the same position as English all.

This illustrates a broader principle:

Wolof determiners do not necessarily occupy the same position as their closest English translation.

Determiners can follow or precede nouns

There is no single universal rule that says:

“Wolof determiners always come after nouns.”

The definite article normally follows the noun:

xale bi

but indefinite determiners such as ab occur before the noun:

ab xale

Other determiner types can occur in different positions according to their grammatical function.

Universal Dependencies’ description of Wolof therefore treats determiners as elements that can occur before or after the noun they modify. (⁠universaldependencies.org)

Learning determiner position as part of each construction is more useful than trying to impose a single word-order rule.

Determiners and noun number

Number is another important part of the determiner system.

Compare:

ab xale
a child

ay xale
some children

xale bi
the child

xale yi
the children

The determiner can therefore provide information about whether the noun is:

• singular and indefinite
• plural and indefinite
• singular and definite
• plural and definite

This works together with the noun’s own plural morphology and noun class.

Determiners and noun-class agreement

A Wolof determiner does not simply agree with a noun in singular versus plural.

It can also agree with its noun class.

For example:

kër gi
the house

xale bi
the child

jigéen ji
the woman

The articles differ even though all three nouns are singular and definite.

This means that a learner needs to keep three things in mind:

noun → noun class → appropriate determiner

rather than simply:

singular noun → “the”

Definite articles and relative clauses

One particularly interesting use of Wolof definite forms is their appearance in constructions where English might use a relative clause.

For example:

xale bu ñu gis
the child whom they saw

Here bu participates in a construction connecting the noun to the following clause.

This is one reason forms such as bu should not simply be memorized as another translation of “the.”

They have grammatical functions beyond ordinary definiteness.

Determiners versus pronouns

Some Wolof forms can function either with a noun or independently.

For example, a demonstrative can identify a noun:

xale bii
this child

but a related form may be used independently:

bii
this one

This distinction is important because grammatical descriptions may classify such forms differently depending on their function.

A useful learner’s rule is:

If the form accompanies a noun and determines its reference, think of it as a determiner. If it stands in place of a noun, it is functioning pronominally.

This is similar to the distinction English makes between:

this book

and:

this.

Determiners versus adjectives

This distinction is particularly important in Wolof because Wolof does not have an adjective category functioning like English adjectives.

English can say:

the big house

Wolof generally expresses such descriptions through other grammatical structures rather than by placing an adjective directly before the noun.

Consequently, a Wolof noun phrase may contain:

noun + determiner

and then a separate construction describing the noun.

For example:

kër gi
the house

and:

kër gu mag gi
the large house

Here the elements surrounding the noun are doing different grammatical jobs.

This is one reason the determiner system is worth treating separately from adjectives.

Determiners and possession

Possessive constructions are another area where English and Wolof differ.

English can say:

my house

Wolof uses a possessive construction involving forms such as:

sama kër
my house

The possessive comes before the noun, unlike the ordinary definite article:

kër gi
the house

A noun phrase can therefore contain several different kinds of reference information:

sama kër gi
my house / the house that is mine

The possessive and definite elements are doing different jobs.

Determiners and context

Wolof determiners often encode distinctions that English can leave to context.

For example, the choice between different definite forms can indicate whether something is:

• close to the speaker
• farther away
• associated with the listener
• already established in conversation
• being described by a following clause

This means that determiners are an important part of how Wolof speakers organize reference and shared knowledge.

A learner should therefore pay attention not only to:

What does this determiner mean?

but also:

Why did the speaker choose this particular form here?

Variation in determiner usage

Determiner usage can vary across speakers and regions.

Descriptions of Wolof definite articles note that some speakers may use forms somewhat differently, and the relationship between noun class and article is not always perfectly predictable from the noun’s spelling. (⁠jangawolof.org)

This is especially important when encountering:

• informal writing
• text messages
• social media
• transcribed speech
• regional varieties
• older written materials

A difference between two forms does not automatically mean that one speaker is using “incorrect Wolof.”

Formal written conventions can be more standardized than everyday usage.

Determiners are best learned with nouns

Because determiner forms depend heavily on noun class, learners will often benefit from learning a noun together with its typical definite article.

Instead of memorizing only:

xale — child

it is useful to remember:

xale bi — the child

Similarly:

kër gi — the house

jigéen ji — the woman

muus mi — the cat

The article provides an immediate reminder of the noun’s grammatical class.

This can become particularly valuable once you begin forming longer noun phrases.

A basic comparison

The following examples illustrate several of the most important determiner patterns:

Wolof	Approximate English
xale	child
ab xale	a child
benn xale	one/a particular child
ay xale	some children
xale bi	the child
xale ba	that/the child over there
xale yi	the children
xale bii	this child
xale bee	that child
bépp xale	each/every child
xale yi yépp	all the children

These are approximate translations rather than strict word-for-word equivalents. The Wolof forms carry grammatical and contextual information that English may express differently or simply leave implicit.

A useful way to think about Wolof determiners

Rather than thinking of determiners as a small list of words equivalent to:

the, a, this, that, some, every

it is more useful to think of them as a system for answering several questions about a noun:

Is it definite?

xale bi
the child

Is it indefinite?

ab xale
a child

Is it singular or plural?

ab xale
a child

ay xale
some children

Which noun class does it belong to?

xale bi

jigéen ji

kër gi

Is it near or distant?

xale bii
this child

xale bee
that child

Is the reference distributive?

bépp xale
each/every child

Does the expression refer to the whole group?

xale yi yépp
all the children

This way of thinking makes the system much easier to understand than trying to memorize a long list of isolated translations.

The most important idea

The most important thing to understand about Wolof determiners is:

Determiners are closely integrated with the noun-class system.

In English, the article the stays the same:

the child
the woman
the house
the cats

In Wolof, the corresponding definite article changes according to the grammatical class and number of the noun:

xale bi
jigéen ji
kër gi
xale yi

The system becomes even richer when proximity, discourse context, indefiniteness, quantity, and grammatical relationships are taken into account.

This is why determiners deserve their own place in a Wolof grammar, even though much of the basic information is naturally introduced alongside nouns.

Key points to remember

• Wolof has a rich determiner system closely connected to noun class and number.
• Definite articles normally follow the noun.
• The definite article changes according to the noun’s grammatical class.
• Common singular article forms include bi, gi, ji, ki, li, mi, si, and wi.
• yi is the most common plural definite article, while ñi occurs with the human/person class associated with ki.
• Definite forms ending in -i, -a, and -u can convey different grammatical or deictic relationships.
• -i is commonly associated with proximity and also functions as a general/default definite form.
• -a can indicate greater distance.
• -u occurs in particular modifying and relative constructions.
• ab is a common indefinite article meaning roughly a/an.
• benn can mean one and can have an indefinite or “a particular” meaning.
• ay can express an indefinite plural such as some.
• Demonstratives such as bii and bee indicate reference such as this and that, with their initial consonant changing according to noun class.
• Quantifying expressions such as bépp express meanings such as each and every.
• Expressions such as yépp can express totality or all.
• Determiners may occur before or after nouns depending on their grammatical function.
• Possessive expressions form another important part of the noun phrase.
• Some determiner-like forms can also function independently as pronouns.
• Determiners are closely related to, but distinct from, noun classes, pronouns, demonstratives, and relative constructions.
• Variation exists in determiner usage across speakers, regions, and registers.
• Learning a noun together with its definite article is a useful way to learn the noun’s grammatical class.
• The best way to understand Wolof determiners is as a system for identifying and specifying nouns, rather than as a list of direct English equivalents.

Related topics

This page connects especially closely with:

• Wolof Nouns
• Wolof Noun Classes
• Wolof Plurals
• Wolof Pronouns
• Wolof Possession
• Wolof Demonstratives
• Wolof Quantifiers
• Wolof Relative Clauses
• Wolof Adjectives and Descriptive Constructions
• Wolof Sentence Structure